syntax and semantic 语法和语义
"Tom, your friend, is sitting in your big sitting room, listening to some beautiful music after dinner."
主语 ：Tom（名词）
谓语 ：is sitting（动词短语） 2
宾语 ：in your big sitting room（介词短语作地点状语） 1
定语 ：your friend（名词短语作定语）
状语 ：after dinner（时间状语） 2
补语 ：listening to some beautiful music（动名词短语作后置定语
# 句子结构/Sentence Structure
Sentence structure is the order of all the parts in a sentence: subject, predicate, objects, phrases, punctuation, etc.
Rules:
- Capitalize the first letter of the first word in a sentence.
- End a sentence with a period, question mark, exclamation point, or quotation marks.
- Most of the time, the subject of the sentence comes first, the verb comes second, and the objects come last. (Subject -> Verb -> Object)
- If the subject is singular, the verb must also be singular. If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural. This is known as subject-verb agreement.
https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/grammar/sentencestructure
# Types of sentence based on structure
A Clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb:
- independent clause: A clause that is a complete sentence
- dependent clause/subordinate clause :A clause that is not a complete sentence They contain special words called subordinating conjunctions, which connect them to independent clauses. Common subordinating conjunctions include because, since, although, unless, and while, as well as relative pronouns like that, which, whatever, whenever, whoever, etc.
EXAMPLE: The roads are icy because it rained last night.
This sentence contains two clauses: (1) The roads are icy and (2) because it rained last night. Each sentence has a subject (the roads & it) and a verb (are & rained), but only the first clause is a complete sentence by itself.
Notice that the subordinate clause because it rained last night slightly changes the meaning of the first sentence by adding new and important information. That’s the main purpose of subordinate clauses—to improve an independent clause with essential details.
# Simple: 1 independent clause
Every sentence requires at least a verb and a subject; a verb is an action, and a subject is the noun that does the action.
I am waiting.
In this example, am waiting is the verb. The main verb is wait, but when we conjugate it in the present continuous, we use the –ing form and add the auxiliary verb am. The subject is I, the person who waits.
The exception to this rule is imperative sentences (commands), which only need a verb. We can assume the subject is the person the speaker is talking to.
Stop!
This single word is a complete sentence. The verb is stop, and no subject is necessary because it’s a command.
Some sentences can add objects, which are nouns that also participate in the action. Let’s say you forgot your calculator and you ask your friend to borrow theirs.
My buddy lends me their calculator.
In this example, lends is the verb and my buddy is the subject because they’re the one lending. The word calculator is what’s called a direct object, the noun that receives the action. In this case, the direct object is the thing being lent—a calculator.
The indirect object is the noun that receives the direct object. In the example above, the indirect object is me, because that’s who receives the calculator. Indirect objects come between the verb and direct object.
Did you notice that the subject uses the pronoun I but the objects use the pronoun me? Subject and object pronouns are different, so make sure you’re using the right one.
Only a certain type of verb called transitive verbs can use direct and indirect objects. However, transitive verbs are quite common, so you’ll be using them a lot.
# Compound: 2 or more independent clauses
You can connect the independent clauses in two ways:
- Using a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so, known as FANBOYS) between the clauses.
- Using a semicolon between the clauses.
“We know they are lying, they know they are lying, they know we know they are lying, we know they know we know they are lying, but they are still lying.”—Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn
# Complex:1 independent clause + 1 or more subordinate clauses
“Until the lion learns to write, every story will glorify the hunter.”—African proverb
“When a person can’t find a deep sense of meaning, they distract themselves with pleasure.”—Viktor Frankl
“It is during our darkest moments that we must focus to see the light.”—Aristotle
# Compound-Complex: 2 or more independent clauses + 1 or more subordinate clauses
“If you’re going to be crazy, you have to get paid for it, or else you’re going to be locked up.”—Hunter S. Thompson
“Don’t aim for success if you want it; just do what you love and believe in, and it will come naturally.”—David Frost
# Types of sentence based on function
# Declarative sentences
- Makes a statement
- Provides an explanation
- Conveys one or more facts
I forgot to wear a hat today. Your pizza is doughy because you didn’t cook it long enough. Spiders and crabs are both members of the arthropod family.
# Interrogative sentences
An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question, like:
How many pet iguanas do you have? May I sit here? Aren’t there enough umbrellas to go around?
One hallmark of interrogative sentences is that they usually begin with pronouns or auxiliary verbs(Interrogative sentences often start with interrogative pronouns and end with a question mark. Interrogative pronouns, typically “wh” words, include “who,” “what,” “when,” “where,” “why,” “which,” “whose,” and “whom.”). When this kind of sentence does start with the subject, it’s usually in colloquial speech. For example:
He went there again? Rats can’t swim, right?
# Exclamatory sentences
Much like an interrogative question ends with a question mark, an exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamation mark. These sentences communicate heightened emotion and are often used as greetings, warnings, or rallying cries. Examples include:
Hey! High voltage! Do not touch! This is Sparta!
The only difference between a declarative sentence and an exclamatory one is the punctuation at the end. But that punctuation makes a big difference in how the reader or listener interprets the sentence. Consider the difference between these:
It’s snowing. It’s snowing!
# Imperative sentences
An imperative sentence is a sentence that gives the reader advice, instructions, a command or makes a request.
An imperative sentence can end in either a period or an exclamation point, depending on the urgency of the sentiment being expressed. Imperative sentences include:
Get off my lawn! After the timer dings, take the cookies out of the oven. Always pack an extra pair of socks.
With an imperative sentence, the subject is generally omitted because the reader understands they’re the one being addressed.
# Conditional sentences
Conditional sentences are sentences that discuss factors and their consequences in an if-then structure. Their structure is:
Conditional clause (typically known as the if-clause) + consequence of that clause.
A basic example of a conditional sentence is:
When you eat ice cream too fast, you get brain freeze.
# The zero conditional: facts and general truths
The structure is straightforward: If + [present simple], … [present simple].
For example, “If you heat ice, it melts.”
If you mix blue and yellow, you get green. If it’s a weekday, I go to work. If you don’t eat, you get hungry.
Remember, the zero conditional is all about facts and general truths. It’s not about specific situations or possibilities. It’s about what’s always true.
特殊形式： If following a specific methodology, be explicit about what it is and how it works to all involved 原型1：条件句的现在分词省略结构
完整形式：If you are following a specific methodology, you must be explicit... 省略逻辑：主从句主语一致时，可省略主语 you 和助动词 are，保留现在分词 following 作条件状语36。 适用场景：强调“正在遵循方法论”的持续状态，常见于学术写作或操作指南中
原型2：一般现在时省略结构
完整形式：If you follow a specific methodology, you must be explicit... 省略逻辑：省略主语 you，直接保留动词原形 follow；但此结构在语法上需依赖上下文明确主语，否则易造成歧义36。 适用场景：描述普遍性或常规操作，例如指导性文件或一般性建议
# The first conditional: real possibilities
It’s used to talk about real and possible situations in the future. The structure is If + [present simple], … will + [infinitive].
For example, “If it rains, I will stay at home.”
This is a real possibility: It might rain, and if it does, I will stay at home.
Here are a few more examples:
If you study hard, you will pass the exam. If I see her, I will say hello. If they don’t hurry, they will miss the train.
If you name it, we will do it=>U name it, we do it
Remember, the first conditional is all about real possibilities in the future. It’s not about general truths or hypothetical situations. It’s about what might happen.
# The second conditional: unreal or improbable situations
It’s used to talk about unreal or improbable situations in the present or future. The structure is If + [past simple], … would + [infinitive].
“If I won the lottery, I would buy a house.” This is an unreal situation. I probably won’t win the lottery, but if I did, I would buy a house.
Here are a few more examples:
If I were you, I would take the job. If it snowed in the Sahara, it would be a miracle. If they knew the truth, they would be shocked.
To summarize, the second conditional is all about unreal or improbable situations. It’s not about what will happen but what could happen in an alternate reality.
# The third conditional: past hypotheticals
It’s used to talk about unreal situations in the past. The structure is If + [past perfect], … would have + [past participle].
For example, “If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.”
In this sentence, the condition is “If I had studied harder,” and the result is “I would have passed the exam.”
This is an unreal situation—I didn’t study hard, and I didn’t pass the exam. But if I had studied harder (in the past), I would have passed the exam (in the past).
Here are a few more examples:
If she had seen the sign, she wouldn’t have parked there. If we had left earlier, we would have caught the train. If he hadn’t forgotten his wallet, he would have paid the bill.
Remember, the third conditional is all about unreal situations in the past. It’s not about what did happen but what could have happened in a different past.
# Exceptions and special cases
Conditional sentences aren’t always cut and dry. There are exceptions and special cases to consider. Sometimes, the standard structure of conditional sentences might not apply. This is often due to the context or the specific meaning we want to convey.
- Mixed conditionals Mixed conditionals are a blend of second and third conditionals. They’re used when the time referenced in the if clause is not the same as the time referenced in the main clause. For example, “If I had worked harder [past], I would be in a better job now [present].”
- Inverted conditionals and formal structures Inverted conditionals are a more formal structure. They invert the subject and auxiliary verb in the if clause. For example, “Had I known [instead of “If I had known”], I would have acted differently.”
# 拆解
# infinitive 动词不定式
Infinitive 是动词的非谓语形式，其基本结构为 to + 动词原形（如 to do），但某些语境下可省略 to（称为 bare infinitive，如 do）
语法独立性： 不受主语的人称或数限制（如 I want to go 与 They want to go 中 to go 不变）36。 动词性质保留： 可带宾语或状语（如 to read a book、to speak clearly）26。 形式多样性： 包含完成式（to have done）和被动式（to be done）
| 功能 | 例句 | 说明 |
|---|---|---|
| 主语 | To learn is challenging. | 表抽象动作，多用于正式文本 |
| 宾语 | She decided to study. | 接在 want/try 等动词后 |
| 定语 | He has a plan to start. | 修饰名词，表目的/用途 |
| 状语 | She woke up early to catch... | 表目的/结果/原因 |
| 补足语 | My goal is to help others. | 补充说明主语/宾语性质 |
| 语法场景 | 动词形式 | 例句 | 语法解析 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 情态动词 (will) | 不带 to 不定式 | I will stay. | stay 直接依附情态动词构成谓语 |
| 普通动词 (want) | 带 to 不定式 | I want to stay. | to stay 作宾语，需 to 连接 |
| 使役动词 (make) | 不带 to 不定式 | He made me stay. | 强调强制动作，跳过 to |
| 疑问句中的情态动词 | 不带 to 不定式 | Can you stay? | 情态动词疑问式仍保留 bare 特性 |
| 过去时态中的不定式 | 不带 to 不定式 | I had to stay. | had to 整体作情态，后接原形 |
Sell the vision of what you want to be able to do 组合后逻辑为“想做某事并具备能力实现”，属于复合不定式结构 want（主动词） → to be（不定式） → able（形容词补语） → to do（不定式）
# compound predicate 复合谓语
同一主语下多个动作/状态 He opened the door and walked in
# 后置定语（postpositive modifier）
have confidence to do sth / in sb
# 比较状语从句
Friction is normal as is conflict, don't avoid it altogether
完整形式应为 as conflict is normal 因主句与从句表语相同（normal），故省略表语形成 as is conflict
倒装结构 as is conflict 强化"冲突"与"摩擦"的并列关系
Courage is vital, as is perseverance in adversity`（勇气至关重要，逆境中的坚持亦然） Success requires effort as does opportunity
# Subordinating Conjunction 从属连词
after/although/as/as if/as long as/as much as/as soon as/as though/because/before/by the time/even if/even though/if/in case/in order that/in the event that/lest/now that/once/only/only if/provided that/since/so/supposing/than/that/though/till/unless/until/when/whenever/where/whereas/wherever/whether or not/while
https://www.grammarly.com/blog/subordinating-conjunctions/
# 倒装 inversion
- 完全倒装 (Full Inversion)
定义：整个谓语动词移至主语之前。 常见触发词： 方位副词（here, there, out, in, up, down等） 地点介词短语（如 "At the top of the hill..."） 例句： "Here comes the bus." （正常语序：The bus comes here.）
- 部分倒装 (Partial Inversion)
定义：仅助动词/情态动词提前，主语与实义动词顺序不变。 常见触发词： 否定词（never, seldom, hardly等） "Only + 状语" 结构 "So...that..." 结构中 "so" 前置 例句： "Never have I seen such a spectacular view." （正常语序：I have never seen...）
条件状语从句前置（Only when...）引发主句倒装（should you go...） Only when you are sure your existing toolset will not suffice should you go out into the marketplace You should go out into the marketplace only when you are sure your existing toolset will not suffice.
# Tense
动词的形式有多种：动词原形、动词三单、动词过去时、动词的现在分词、过去分词 以do为例，对应 do, does, did, doing, done
Present simple and Present continuous, Present Perfect and past simple (Stative Verbs: Verbs that describe states rather than actions are normally only used in the simple form, i.e. verbs of thinking(e.g. know,agree), verbs of appearance(e.g. look,seem), feeling(e.g. prefer,want), possession(e.g. own,belong), the senses(e.g. taste,sound). Some stative verbs can sometimes be used in the continuous form, but with a change in meaning: I'm seeing Bob on Monday=I am meeting Bob)
"I would do it" and "I would have done it"? https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-I-would-do-it-and-I-would-have-done-it-Why
who'd have guessed? 谁能猜得到？
pretty much has been done
# Present simple and Present continuous
"How do you interpret" is a general question asking for someone's understanding or explanation of something, while "how are you interpreting" focuses on how a specific person is currently understanding or analyzing something in the moment, implying a more active process of making sense of information.
将来进行时 In view of the limited time for Day 2 lesson this week, please spend some time to read the following topics before the lesson. If you have any specific questions on these topics, feel free to let me know in advance. I will still be going through important points on these topics, the rest of the Day 2 lesson time will be used for in-class discussions. I will also be spending some time to discuss the scenario for the first individual assignment and specific areas which are out of scope for the examination during Day 2 lesson.
强调“时间分配”的刻意性 通过将来进行时，暗示 “特意留出时间” 完成该任务，而非随意插入。 对比： "I will spend time..." → 中性陈述（可能临时起意） "I will be spending time..." → 暗示提前规划（课程设计中已预留时段）
弱化“义务感”，增强“流程性” 使用进行时能避免让听众感觉这是教师的单方面要求（"will do" 可能隐含强制感），而更像 “课程自然进展的一部分”。 例： 领导开会时说 "We will be reviewing the policy"（流程性） vs. "We will review the policy"（可能暗示强制任务）。
暗示与其他动作的同步性 未来进行时可暗示 “在Day 2课程期间，讨论与其他活动并行”。 例： "I will be teaching grammar while you take notes."（教学与记笔记同时进行）
# Past past perfect
Didn’t havn’t https://ell.stackexchange.com/questions/385/when-should-i-use-didnt-instead-of-havent
Past perfect, present perfect I wondered if you’d had time to look through the portfolio I sent.
A: I wondered if you'd(had) had time to look at the brochure I sent you. B: Yes, it looks very interesting.
https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/26256/i-had-finished-the-work-on-friday-i-have-finished-the-work https://forum.wordreference.com/threads/i-was-wondering-if-you-have-had-had-a-chance.3187192/
# 比较级 Comparative and Superlative
It is best to allow only one analyst to work on a diagram at a time.
# 修辞手法
metaphor,analogy,allusion Maybe a good analogy here is bar codes and serial numbers. Take an iPod in a store. On the packaging will be a bar code. This tells the store what the product is, so when it is scanned, the system knows exactly what the product is and what it costs. It might even be able to know what color it is or where it was kept in the store. All iPod of this same type has the exact same barcode on them. The iPod will also have a serial number on it which is absolutely unique to any other iPod (or any other device) in the world. The serial number doesn't know the price. It could, but for the store, this wouldn't be a very efficient way to store and use that data. Much easier to use the barcode, so that for example, if the price changed, you could just change the price for that bar code and not every individual serial number in your system. This is much like ID's and Classes. Information that is reusable should be kept in a class and information that is totally unique should be kept in an ID.
# questions
Closed Question / Open Question / Tag Question / Choice Question / Declarative statements with rising intonation Answering Tag Questions https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-questions-tag-answering.htm If you were wrong, admit it. You won't lose dignity but will gain respect.
# Pied-piping with inversion 伴随法则
To whom could we direct our questions?
# Email Template:
Johnny, please arrange for a 13 seater minibus on Monday, 27th may at 8pm. Pick up will be at 19, china street. Contact person I will let u know on Monday. It will be a one way trip from china street to 121, katong shopping centre. Let me know the details once u have them. Dear ***, The driver's name is **. His h/p: ******. Minibus vehicle no. *. I will update for any changes. Feel free to call me on my hp: for any queries.
what can (not) do you for? http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/22405/distinction-what-can-i-do-you-for-vs-what-can-i-do-for-you