句子结构/Sentence Structure

Sentence structure is the order of all the parts in a sentence: subject, predicate, objects, phrases, punctuation, etc.

Rules:

• Capitalize the first letter of the first word in a sentence.
• End a sentence with a period, question mark, exclamation point, or quotation marks.
• Most of the time, the subject of the sentence comes first, the verb comes second, and the objects come last. (Subject -> Verb -> Object)
• If the subject is singular, the verb must also be singular. If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural. This is known as subject-verb agreement.

https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/grammar/sentencestructure

Types of sentence based on structure

A Clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb:

• independent clause: A clause that is a complete sentence
• dependent clause/subordinate clause :A clause that is not a complete sentence They contain special words called subordinating conjunctions, which connect them to independent clauses. Common subordinating conjunctions include because, since, although, unless, and while, as well as relative pronouns like that, which, whatever, whenever, whoever, etc.

EXAMPLE: The roads are icy because it rained last night.

This sentence contains two clauses: (1) The roads are icy and (2) because it rained last night. Each sentence has a subject (the roads & it) and a verb (are & rained), but only the first clause is a complete sentence by itself.

Notice that the subordinate clause because it rained last night slightly changes the meaning of the first sentence by adding new and important information. That’s the main purpose of subordinate clauses—to improve an independent clause with essential details.

Simple: 1 independent clause

Every sentence requires at least a verb and a subject; a verb is an action, and a subject is the noun that does the action.

I am waiting.

In this example, am waiting is the verb. The main verb is wait, but when we conjugate it in the present continuous, we use the –ing form and add the auxiliary verb am. The subject is I, the person who waits.

The exception to this rule is imperative sentences (commands), which only need a verb. We can assume the subject is the person the speaker is talking to.

Stop!

This single word is a complete sentence. The verb is stop, and no subject is necessary because it’s a command.

Some sentences can add objects, which are nouns that also participate in the action. Let’s say you forgot your calculator and you ask your friend to borrow theirs.

My buddy lends me their calculator.

In this example, lends is the verb and my buddy is the subject because they’re the one lending. The word calculator is what’s called a direct object, the noun that receives the action. In this case, the direct object is the thing being lent—a calculator.

The indirect object is the noun that receives the direct object. In the example above, the indirect object is me, because that’s who receives the calculator. Indirect objects come between the verb and direct object.

Did you notice that the subject uses the pronoun I but the objects use the pronoun me? Subject and object pronouns are different, so make sure you’re using the right one.

Only a certain type of verb called transitive verbs can use direct and indirect objects. However, transitive verbs are quite common, so you’ll be using them a lot.

Compound: 2 or more independent clauses

You can connect the independent clauses in two ways:

• Using a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so, known as FANBOYS) between the clauses.
• Using a semicolon between the clauses.

“We know they are lying, they know they are lying, they know we know they are lying, we know they know we know they are lying, but they are still lying.”—Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn

Complex:1 independent clause + 1 or more subordinate clauses

“Until the lion learns to write, every story will glorify the hunter.”—African proverb

“When a person can’t find a deep sense of meaning, they distract themselves with pleasure.”—Viktor Frankl

“It is during our darkest moments that we must focus to see the light.”—Aristotle

Compound-Complex: 2 or more independent clauses + 1 or more subordinate clauses

“If you’re going to be crazy, you have to get paid for it, or else you’re going to be locked up.”—Hunter S. Thompson

“Don’t aim for success if you want it; just do what you love and believe in, and it will come naturally.”—David Frost

Types of sentence based on function

Declarative sentences

• Makes a statement
• Provides an explanation
• Conveys one or more facts

I forgot to wear a hat today. Your pizza is doughy because you didn’t cook it long enough. Spiders and crabs are both members of the arthropod family.

Interrogative sentences

An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question, like:

How many pet iguanas do you have? May I sit here? Aren’t there enough umbrellas to go around?

One hallmark of interrogative sentences is that they usually begin with pronouns or auxiliary verbs(Interrogative sentences often start with interrogative pronouns and end with a question mark. Interrogative pronouns, typically “wh” words, include “who,” “what,” “when,” “where,” “why,” “which,” “whose,” and “whom.”). When this kind of sentence does start with the subject, it’s usually in colloquial speech. For example:

He went there again? Rats can’t swim, right?

Exclamatory sentences

Much like an interrogative question ends with a question mark, an exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamation mark. These sentences communicate heightened emotion and are often used as greetings, warnings, or rallying cries. Examples include:

Hey! High voltage! Do not touch! This is Sparta!

The only difference between a declarative sentence and an exclamatory one is the punctuation at the end. But that punctuation makes a big difference in how the reader or listener interprets the sentence. Consider the difference between these:

It’s snowing. It’s snowing!

Imperative sentences

An imperative sentence is a sentence that gives the reader advice, instructions, a command or makes a request.

An imperative sentence can end in either a period or an exclamation point, depending on the urgency of the sentiment being expressed. Imperative sentences include:

Get off my lawn! After the timer dings, take the cookies out of the oven. Always pack an extra pair of socks.

With an imperative sentence, the subject is generally omitted because the reader understands they’re the one being addressed.

Conditional sentences

Conditional sentences are sentences that discuss factors and their consequences in an if-then structure. Their structure is:

Conditional clause (typically known as the if-clause) + consequence of that clause.

A basic example of a conditional sentence is:

When you eat ice cream too fast, you get brain freeze.

The zero conditional: facts and general truths

The structure is straightforward: If + [present simple], … [present simple].

For example, “If you heat ice, it melts.”

If you mix blue and yellow, you get green. If it’s a weekday, I go to work. If you don’t eat, you get hungry.

Remember, the zero conditional is all about facts and general truths. It’s not about specific situations or possibilities. It’s about what’s always true.

The first conditional: real possibilities

It’s used to talk about real and possible situations in the future. The structure is If + [present simple], … will + [infinitive].

For example, “If it rains, I will stay at home.”

This is a real possibility: It might rain, and if it does, I will stay at home.

Here are a few more examples:

If you study hard, you will pass the exam. If I see her, I will say hello. If they don’t hurry, they will miss the train.

Remember, the first conditional is all about real possibilities in the future. It’s not about general truths or hypothetical situations. It’s about what might happen.

The second conditional: unreal or improbable situations

It’s used to talk about unreal or improbable situations in the present or future. The structure is If + [past simple], … would + [infinitive].

“If I won the lottery, I would buy a house.” This is an unreal situation. I probably won’t win the lottery, but if I did, I would buy a house.

Here are a few more examples:

If I were you, I would take the job. If it snowed in the Sahara, it would be a miracle. If they knew the truth, they would be shocked.

To summarize, the second conditional is all about unreal or improbable situations. It’s not about what will happen but what could happen in an alternate reality.

The third conditional: past hypotheticals

It’s used to talk about unreal situations in the past. The structure is If + [past perfect], … would have + [past participle].

For example, “If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.”

In this sentence, the condition is “If I had studied harder,” and the result is “I would have passed the exam.”

This is an unreal situation—I didn’t study hard, and I didn’t pass the exam. But if I had studied harder (in the past), I would have passed the exam (in the past).

Here are a few more examples:

If she had seen the sign, she wouldn’t have parked there. If we had left earlier, we would have caught the train. If he hadn’t forgotten his wallet, he would have paid the bill.

Remember, the third conditional is all about unreal situations in the past. It’s not about what did happen but what could have happened in a different past.

Exceptions and special cases

Conditional sentences aren’t always cut and dry. There are exceptions and special cases to consider. Sometimes, the standard structure of conditional sentences might not apply. This is often due to the context or the specific meaning we want to convey.

• Mixed conditionals Mixed conditionals are a blend of second and third conditionals. They’re used when the time referenced in the if clause is not the same as the time referenced in the main clause. For example, “If I had worked harder [past], I would be in a better job now [present].”
• Inverted conditionals and formal structures Inverted conditionals are a more formal structure. They invert the subject and auxiliary verb in the if clause. For example, “Had I known [instead of “If I had known”], I would have acted differently.”

pronoun

• subject pronoun: I
• object pronoun: Me He asked me a question.
• reflexive pronoun: Myself I bought myself a new car!
• possessive pronoun: My Have you met my family?

Subordinating Conjunction

after/although/as/as if/as long as/as much as/as soon as/as though/because/before/by the time/even if/even though/if/in case/in order that/in the event that/lest/now that/once/only/only if/provided that/since/so/supposing/than/that/though/till/unless/until/when/whenever/where/whereas/wherever/whether or not/while

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/subordinating-conjunctions/

情态动词 Modal verb

can or could https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/can-or-could I wouldn’t if https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/314087/i-wouldnt-work-if-i-wouldnt-get-paid

how earlier should I inform you?

What’s the difference between will be and would be? https://www.quora.com/What%E2%80%99s-the-difference-between-will-be-and-would-be

Tense

动词的形式有多种：动词原形、动词三单、动词过去时、动词的现在分词、过去分词 以do为例，对应 do, does, did, doing, done

Present simple and Present continuous, Present Perfect and past simple (Stative Verbs: Verbs that describe states rather than actions are normally only used in the simple form, i.e. verbs of thinking(e.g. know,agree), verbs of appearance(e.g. look,seem), feeling(e.g. prefer,want), possession(e.g. own,belong), the senses(e.g. taste,sound). Some stative verbs can sometimes be used in the continuous form, but with a change in meaning: I'm seeing Bob on Monday=I am meeting Bob)

"I would do it" and "I would have done it"? https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-I-would-do-it-and-I-would-have-done-it-Why

who'd have guessed? 谁能猜得到？

pretty much has been done

Past past perfect

Didn’t havn’t https://ell.stackexchange.com/questions/385/when-should-i-use-didnt-instead-of-havent

Past perfect, present perfect I wondered if you’d had time to look through the portfolio I sent.

A: I wondered if you'd(had) had time to look at the brochure I sent you. B: Yes, it looks very interesting.

https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/26256/i-had-finished-the-work-on-friday-i-have-finished-the-work https://forum.wordreference.com/threads/i-was-wondering-if-you-have-had-had-a-chance.3187192/

比较级

It is best to allow only one analyst to work on a diagram at a time.

修辞手法

metaphor,analogy,allusion Maybe a good analogy here is bar codes and serial numbers. Take an iPod in a store. On the packaging will be a bar code. This tells the store what the product is, so when it is scanned, the system knows exactly what the product is and what it costs. It might even be able to know what color it is or where it was kept in the store. All iPod of this same type has the exact same barcode on them. The iPod will also have a serial number on it which is absolutely unique to any other iPod (or any other device) in the world. The serial number doesn't know the price. It could, but for the store, this wouldn't be a very efficient way to store and use that data. Much easier to use the barcode, so that for example, if the price changed, you could just change the price for that bar code and not every individual serial number in your system. This is much like ID's and Classes. Information that is reusable should be kept in a class and information that is totally unique should be kept in an ID.

questions

Closed Question / Open Question / Tag Question / Choice Question / Declarative statements with rising intonation Answering Tag Questions https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-questions-tag-answering.htm If you were wrong, admit it. You won't lose dignity but will gain respect.

compound predicate

Comparative and Superlative http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/67991/much-more-easy-versus-much-easier

Pied-piping with inversion 伴随法则

To whom could we direct our questions?

Email Template:

Johnny, please arrange for a 13 seater minibus on Monday, 27th may at 8pm. Pick up will be at 19, china street. Contact person I will let u know on Monday. It will be a one way trip from china street to 121, katong shopping centre. Let me know the details once u have them. Dear ***, The driver's name is **. His h/p: ******. Minibus vehicle no. *. I will update for any changes. Feel free to call me on my hp: for any queries.